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Between 1500 B.C. and the first encounters with the Romans (around 350
B.C.), the Celtic languages are believed to split into two distinct groups, the ‘p’ and ‘q’ Celtic branches. Cornish, Welsh and Breton (to which
Cornish is most closely related) are the three remaining ‘p’ Celtic languages. Irish, Scots Gaelic and Manx being the ‘q’ Celtic tongues.

4. The Decline of Cornish.

Cornish developed pretty much naturally into a modern European language until the 17th century, after which it came under pressure by the encroachment of English. Factors involved in its decline included the introduction of the English prayer book, the rapid introduction of English as a language of commerce and most particularly the negative stigma associated with what was considered by Cornish people themselves as the language of the poor.

5. The Rebirth of Cornish.

Cornish died out as a native language in the late 19th century, with the last Cornish speaker believed to have lived in Penwith. By this time however, Cornish was being revived by Henry Jenner, planting the seeds for the current state of the language and it is supposed that the last native speaker was the fishwoman Dolly Pentreath.

6. Standard Cornish.

Standard Cornish was developed from Jenner’s work by a team under the leadership of Morton Nance, culminating in the first full set of grammars, dictionaries and periodicals. Standard Cornish (Unified) is again being developed through UCR (Unified Cornish Revised), and incorporates most features of Cornish, including allowing for Eastern and Western forms of pronunciation and colloquial and literary forms of Cornish.

7. Who uses Cornish Today?

Today Cornish typically appeals to all age groups and to those either who have an empathy with Cornwall, who have Cornish roots or perhaps have moved to Cornwall from elsewhere. One of the great successes of Cornish today is ifs wide appeal. After a break in native speakers for nearly one hundred years, Cornwall now has many children who now have Cornish as a native language along side English, and many more who are fluent in the language.

8. Government Recognition for Cornish.

Cornish is the only modern Celtic language that receives no significant support from government, despite the growing numbers learning
Cornish, and the immense good will towards it from ordinary Cornish people and from elsewhere.

This contrasts strongly with the favourable stand taken by the Manx government towards Manx for example, as evidenced by Manx primary school places being made generally available.

Recently, the UK government scrapped the Cornish GCSE. Lack of Cornish language facilities and support is no longer just a language issue, but is rapidly becoming a civil rights and political issue too. Despite the growing support of councillors in Cornwall, some key individuals in County
Hall continue to make clear their hostility to the language. e.g. of the Cornish language:

“Pyw yw an Gernowyon?

Pobel Geltek yw an bobel a Gernow . Yn osow hendasek, an wtas
Gorfewenna yn Wtas Dumnonii, neb a dregas yn Kernow, Dewnans ha Gwtas an
Haf.

Y hyltyr bos del An Gernowyon a wrug trega yn Kernow hedro an dallath gonys tyr adro 3000 K.C.. An dallath gonys tyr yn Kernow a vo dallath an os
‘proto Yndo-Europek’, dres an tavajow Keltek ha tavajow Ytaiek dallath dhe dhysplegya.”

Part III. Peculiarities of South-Western Dialects.

1. Vocalisation.
|Devonshire |Somersetshire |Wiltshire |
|“a” after “w” |
|is realized as [a:]: |is realized as [ж]: | |
|wasp [wa:sp] |warm [wжrm] | |
|watch [wa:t?] |warn [wжrn] | |
|want [wa:nt] |wart [wжrt] | |
|wander [wa:nd ] | | |
|“asp”, “ass”, “ast”, “a” > [ж]: grass [grжs], glass [glжs], fast [fжst] |
|“al + a consonant” |
| |“l” is realized as [a:] | |
| |or | |
| |[ :]: | |
| |talk [ta:k] | |
| |walk [wa:k] | |
| |chalk [t?a:k] | |
| |balk [ba:k] | |
|a + l, a + ll |
|in the open syllable | |in the open syllable |
|“a” > [ж]: | |“a” > [ж]: |
|crane [krжn] | |crane [krжn] |
|frame [frжm] | |frame [frжm] |
|lame [lжm] | |lame [lжm] |
|make [mжk] | |make [mжk] |
|name [nжm] | |name [nжm] |
|The first sound is vowel |
|acre [jakr] |
|ale [jal] |
|acorn [’jak?rn] |
|hare [hja:r] |
|ache [jek] |
|acorn [jek?rn] |
|behave [b?’hjev] |
|“e” in the closed syllables > “a” |
|Nothern |Western | |
|egg [ag], fetch [fat?], step [stap], | |
|wretch [rat?], stretch [strat?] | |
|“e” in the closed syllables > [e?] |
|Eastern |Southern | |
|egg [e?g], stretch [stre?t?] | |
|“e” in the closed syllables > [e:] |
|South-Western |Western |Middle/Eastern |
|Leg [le:g], bed [be:d], hedge [he:d(] | |
|if “e” follows “w” > [ :] |
| |Western | |
| |well [w :l] | |
| |twelve [tw :lv] | |
| |wench [w :nt?] | |
|“i” in the closed syllable |
|North-Western |Western | |
|> [e]: |> [ ]: | |
|big [beg] |bill [b l] | |
|bid [bed] |little [’l tl] | |
|flitch [fletch] |children [’t? ldr n] | |
|sit [set] |cliff [kl f] | |
|spit [spet] |hill [h l] | |
| |drift [dr ft] | |
| |shrimp [?r mp] | |
| |fit [f t] | |
| |ship [? p] | |
| |pig [p g] | |
| |fish [f ?] | |
|“ight” > [e] |
|North-Western |Western | |
|flight, right | |
|if a nasal consonant follows “i” |
|> [e]: | |> [e]: |
|sing [se?] | |sing [se?] |
|cling [kle?] | |cling [kle?] |
|“i” before “nd” |
|North-Western | | |
|> [e]: | | |
|bind [ben] | | |
|blind [blen] | | |
|find [ven] | | |
|grind [gren] | | |
|“i” before “ld” |
| |Eastern | |
| |> [i:]: | |
| |mild [mi:ld] | |
| |wild [wi:ld] | |
| |child [t??ld] | |
|“i” in the open syllable |
|South-Western |Southern | |
|> [e?]: |> [e?]: | |
|fly [fle?] |bide [be?d] | |
|lie [le?] |wide [we?d] | |
|thigh [?e?] |time [te?m] | |
|Eastern | | |
|> [ ?]: | | |
|fly [fl ?] | | |
|lie [l ?] | | |
|“o” in the closed syllable followed by a consonant |
|South-Western | |Eastern |
|> [a:]: | |> [ ]: |
|dog [da:g] | |cot [k t] |
|cross [kra:s] | |bottom [b tm] |
| | |dog [d g] |
| | |cross [kr s] |
| | |Western |
| | |> [a:]: |
| | |dog [da:g] |
| | |cross [kra:s] |
|“o” + a nasal consonant |
|North-Western |Western |Western |
|> [ж]: |> [ж]: | |
|among [?’mж?] |among [?’mж?] |among [?’mж?] |
|long [lж?] |long [lж?] |long [lж?] |
|wrong [rж?] |wrong [rж?] |wrong [rж?] |
|“ol” + a consonant |
| |Western |Western |
| |> [u?]: |> [u?]: |
| |gold [gv?ld] |gold [gv?ld] |
| |old [u?ld] |old [u?ld] |
|“o” in the open syllable and “oa” |
| |Western | |
| |> [ ]: | |
| |bone [b n] | |
| |broad [br d] | |
| |rope [r p] | |
| |load [l d] | |
| |“oi” | |
| | |> [a?]: |
| | |choice [t?a?s] |
| | |join [d(a?n] |
| | |moil [ma?l] |
| | |point [pa?nt] |
| | |spoil [spa?l] |
| | |voice [va?s] |
|“u” in the closed syllable |
|Southern | | |
|> [e]: | | |
|but [bet] | | |
|dust [dest] | | |
|“ou” / ”ow” |
| | |Easter |
| | |> [av]: |
| | |low [lav] |
| | |owe [au] |
|“oo” |
|North-Western |Western |Middle/Eastern |
|> [?]: |> [ц]: |> [ ]: |
|good [g?d] |book [bцk] |book [b k] |
|hood [h?d] |cook [kцk] |brook [br k] |
|foot [f?t] |crook [krцk] |crook [kr k] |
|blood [bl?d] |look [lцk] |look [l k] |
|stood [st?d] |took [tцk] |took [t k] |
|bloom [bl?m] |good [gцd] |good [g d] |
|broom [br?m] |foot [fцt] |foot [f t] |
|moon [m?n] |stood [stцd] |soot [s t] |
|loom [l?m] | |flood [fl d] |
|Eastern | | |
|> [ ]: | | |
|book [b k] | | |
|brook [br k] | | |
|crook [kr k] | | |
|“i” in the open syllable |
|South-western |Southern | |
|> [e?]: |> [e?]: | |
|fly [fle?] |bide [be?d] | |
|lie [le?] |wide [we?d] | |
|thigh [?e?] |time [te?m] | |
|Eastern | | |
|> [ ?]: | | |
|fly [fl ?] | | |
|lie [l ?] | | |
|“o” in the closed syllable followed by a consonant |
|South-western | |Eastern |
|> [a:]: | |> [ ]: |
|dog [da:g] | |cot [k t] |
|cross [kra:s] | |bottom [b tm] |
| | |dog [d g] |
| | |cross [kr s] |
| | |Western |
| | |> [a:]: |
| | |dog [da:g] |
| | |cross [kra:s] |
|Devonshire |Somersetshire |Wiltshire |
|“o” + a nasal consonant |
|North-western |Western |Western |
|> [ж]: among [?’mж?], long [lж?], wrong [wrж?] |
|“ol” + a consonant |
| |Western |Western |
| |> [u?l]: gold [gv?ld], old [u?ld] |
|“oa” |
| |Western | |
| |> [ ]: | |
| |bone [b n] | |
| |broad [br d] | |
| |rope [r p] | |
| |load [l d] | |
| |“oi” | |
| | |> [a?]: |
| | |choice [t?a?s] |
| | |join [d(a?n] |
| | |moil [ma?l] |
| | |point [pa?nt] |
| | |spoil [spa?l] |
| | |voice [va?s] |
|“u” in the closed syllable |
|Southern | | |
|> [e]: | | |
|but [bet] | | |
|dust [dest] | | |
|“ou”/“ow” |
| | |Easter |
| | |> [av]: |
| | |low [lav] |
| | |owe [au] |
|“oo” |
|North-Western |Western |Middle/Eastern |
|> [?]: |> [ц]: |> [ ]: |
|good [g?d] |book [bцk] |book [b k] |
|hood [h?d] |cook [kцk] |brook [br k] |
|foot [f?t] |crook [krцk] |crook [kr k] |
|blood [bl?d] |look [lцk] |look [l k] |
|stood [st?d] |took [tцk] |took [t k] |
|bloom [bl?m] |good [gцd] |good [g d] |
|broom [br?m] |foot [fцt] |foot [f t] |
|moon [m?n] |stood [stцd] |soot [s t] |
|loom [l?m] | |flood [fl d] |
|root [r?t] | | |
|spoon [sp?n] | | |
|Eastern | | |
|> [ ]: | | |
|book [b k] | | |
|brook [br k] | | |
|crook [kr k] | | |
|look [l k] | | |
|“er”, “ir”, “ur” |
| |Southern | |
| |> [a:]: | |
| |learn [la:n] | |
| |earth [a:?] | |
| |bird [ba:d] | |
| |birch [ba:t?] | |
| |merchant [’ma:t??nt] | |
| |herb [ha:b] | |
| |work [wa:k] | |
|“or” |
| |> [a:]: fork [fa:k], horse [ha:s], horn [ha:n], |
| |short [?a:t], |
| | Morning [’ma:n??], word [wa:d] |
|“ew” |
|Eastern | |Northern |
|> [ь:]: | |> [jav]: |
|dew [dь:] | |dew [djau] |
|few [fь:] | |few [fjau] |
| | |new [njau] |
| |
|2. Consonantism |
|[w] in the beginning of the word or before “h” |
|old [w l] | |[w] is not pronounced: |
|oak [w k] | |week [ouk] |
|hot [w t] | |swick [su:k] |
|home [w m] | | |
|orchard [wurt??t] | | |
|hole [hwul] | | |
|hope [hwup] | | |
|open [’wupen] | | |
|“w” before “r” |
|is not pronounced |Western |is not pronounced |
| |> [vr]: | |
| |wreck, wren, wrench, | |
| |wrap, write, wrong | |
| |e.g. Ye vratch, ye’ve | |
| |vrutten that a’vrang. | |
| |(= You wretch, you’ve | |
| |written that all wrong.)| |
|“wh” at the beginning of a word is [w], [u:], [u?] |
|in the middle of a word [w] is pronounced |
|boy [bwo], moist [mw ?st], toad [twud], cool [kwul], country [’kw?ntr?] |
|“f”, “th”, “s”, “sh” are voiced |
|Friday [’vrж:d?], friends [vr?n(], fleas [vle:z], and in the these words: |
|foe, father, fair, fear, find, fish, foal, full, follow, filth, fist, fire, |
|fond, fault, feast, force, forge, fool. |
|[?]: thought [р :t], thick [р?k], thigh [рa?], and in the words: from, |
|freeze, fresh, free, friend, frost, frog, froth, flesh, fly flock, flood, |
|fleece, fling, flower, fail. |
|“t” at the beginning of the word before a vowel |
|Nothern | | |
|> [t?]: | | |
|team [t?em], | | |
|tune [t?un], | | |
|Tuesday [’t?uzde] | | |
|East D “t” in the middle| | |
|of the word is voiced: | | |
|bottle [’b dl], | | |
|kettle [’kedl], | | |
|little [’l?dl], | | |
|nettle [’nedl], | | |
|bottom [’b dm], | | |
|matter [’med?], | | |
|cattle [’k dl], | | |
|kittens [k?dnz] | | |
|“t” in the middle of the word is voiced |
| | |Western |
| | |bottle [’b dl], |
| | |kettle [’kedl], |
| | |little [’l?dl], |
| | |nettle [’nedl], |
| | |bottom [’b dm], |
| | |matter [’med?], |
| | |cattle [’k dl], |
| | |kittens [k?dnz] |
|The consonant [t] in (the French borrowings) hasn’t become [t?] as it is in |
|RP: |
|picture [’p?kt?r], nature [’net?r], feature [’f??t?r] |
|the middle [t] sometimes disappears in the positions before “m…l”, “n…l”, |
|“m…r” |
| |Western | |
| |brimstone [’br?msn] | |
| |empty [’emp?] | |
| |The same happens to the | |
| |middle [b]: | |
| |chamber > chimmer, | |
| |embers > emmers, | |
| |brambles > brimmels | |
|between “l” and “r”; “r” and “l”; “n” and “r” a parasitic [d] has developed |
|parlour [’pa:ld?r], tailor [’ta?ld?r], smaller [’sm :ld?r], curls |
|[’ka:dlz], hurl [’a:dl], marl [’ma:dl], quarrel [’kw :dl], world [’wa:dl], |
|corner [’ka:nd?r] |
| | |Western |
| | |a parasitic [d] appeared|
| | |after [l, n, r]: |
| | |feel [fi:ld] |
| | |school [sku:ld] |
| | |idle [a?dld] |
| | |mile [ma?dl] |
| | |born [ba?nd] |
| | |soul [s :ld] |
| | |soon [zu:nd] |
| | |gown [gaund] |
| | |swoon [zaund] |
| | |wine [wa?nd] |
| | |miller [’m?l?d] |
| | |scholar [’sk l?d] |
|the middle [d] in the word “needle” comes after [l]: [ni:ld] |
| |Eastern | |
| |In the word “disturb” | |
| |[b] is pronounced as [v]| |
| |- | |
| |[dis, t?:v] | |
|the first [?] is pronounced as [р] |
|thank [рж?k] and in other words: thatch, thaw, thigh, thin, thing, think, |
|third, thistle, thong, thought, thousand, thumb, thunder, Thursday |
| |Sometimes [?] is | |
| |pronounced as [t] at the| |
| |end of the word: | |
| |lath [lat] | |
| | |Western |
| | |In some words [s] at the|
| | |beginning of the word is|
| | |pronounced as [?]: |
| | |suet [?u?t]. |
| | |The same happens when |
| | |[s] is in the middle of |
| | |the word: |
| | |first [fer?t] |
| | |breast [br??t] |
| | |next [n??t] |
| | |North-West W: [s] is |
| | |sometimes pronounced as |
| | |[(]: sure [(u?r] |
|“sh”, “sk” at the end of the word |
| |Western | |
| |> [s]: | |
| |cask [k s] | |
| |flask [fl s] | |
| |leash [li:s] | |
| |tusk [tus] | |
| |Sometimes instead of [k]| |
| |[t?] is heard: | |
| |back [b t?] | |
| |wark [wa:t?] | |
|sometimes the initial letter or a syllable is apsent |
| |Western |Eastern |
| |believe, deliver, desire, directly, disturb, |
| |eleven, enough, except, occasion, inquest, |
| |epidemic |
|the initial “cl” |
|> [tl]: clad [tlad], clap, clay, claw, clean, cleave, clergy, clerk, clew, |
|cliff, climb, cling, clip, cloak, close, clot, cloth, cloud, clout |
|“gl” in the beginning of the word |
|> [dl]: glad, glass, glisten, gloom, glove, glow |
|[l] in the middle of the word isn’t pronounced |
| |Western |Eastern |
| |Already |
| |shoulder [’?a:d?r] |
| | |the Middle/Eastern |
| | |[l] is often > [ ]: |
| | |bill [b?’ ] |
| | |tool [tu’ ] |
| | |nibble [n?’b ] |
| | |milk [m?’ k] |
| | |silk [s?’ k] |

3. Grammar.

3.1 Nouns.

The definite article.

- There isn’t the definite article before “same”: ’Tis same’s I always told ’ee”.

- The of-phrase “the… of” is of ten used instead of the possessive pronoun (e.g. “the head of him “instead of” his head”)

The plural form of a noun.

- In many cases -s (es) can be added for several times: e.g. steps [’steps?z] (South Som.)

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