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- Many of Peter I's reforms were consolidated by the empresses Elizabeth and Catherine II the Great. Catherine added the Crimea and Ukraine, as well as Polish territory, to the empire.

- How did Russia develop in the 19th century?

- Alexander I's attention was diverted from reforms by the Napoleonic Wars. Opposition to serfdom had been growing since the time of Catherine the Great, who had hoped to end it but was forced to extend it. The institution was finally abolished by Alexander II. The "Emancipation Manifesto" made bondaged peasants free. But the "Tsar Liberator" was assassinated by the revolutionaries in 1881.

- What happened at the beginning of the 20th century in Russia?

- Russian autocracy was defeated in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05. Months of students' disorders, scattered peasants' uprisings, mounting strikes and riots forced Nicholas II to agree to form a national Duma (parliament) with advisory powers. In the October Manifesto the emperor promised to create a legislative assembly and guarantee civil liberties. The October Manifesto inaugurated a period of constitutional government.

- What do you know about the Dumas?

- The First Duma was elected on a broad franchise, though it fell short of the franchise demanded by the parties of the Left. The old State Council became a party elective upper house. Nicholas II promised that no bill could become law without the Duma's approval. But the Duma's budgetary powers were limited, and though Duma deputies could question ministers, the latter were responsible only to the Tsar. The First Duma, which was dominated by the Cadets, met only from April to July. The bill for expropriation with compensation, of the lands of the gentry and others led the government to dissolve Duma. Between 1906 and 1917 several Dumas, often with left-wing majorities, were elected and dissolved, but there was little progress in reform owing to the stiffness of the monarchy and the resistance of the aristocracy.

- How did the Bolsheviks come to power?

- Russia's entry into World War I was a disaster for the nation. By the autumn of 1915 the country had lost more than a million men. In February 1917 the Romanov dynasty was overthrown, and a democratic Provisional Government was established. In October (November, New Style), the Bolsheviks seized the power. Russia withdrew from World War I, and the Bolsheviks defeated their opponents in a civil war, forming the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic became the largest and central component of the Soviet Union.

- How did the country develop after the October Revolution?

- In the 1930s the Soviet Union underwent rapid industrialization and collectivization. The USSR developed into a world power and played a major role in the defeat of Germany in World War II During the 1960s and '70s the Soviet Union tried to spread its influence world-wide. Mikhail Gorbachev's coming to power in 1985 marked the beginning of new changes in Soviet society - chiefly a restructuring (perestroika) of the nation's political and economic systems and a new openness (glasnost) in public discussion, debate, and cultural expression. By the 1990s, reformism had eroded the Communists' grasp on power, both at home and in eastern Europe. An attempted coup d'etat by Communist hard-liners on August 19-21, 1991, failed, permitting the further advance of political pluralism and democratic institutions - spearheaded by Russian President Boris Yeltsin popularly elected in June 1991.

- Is Russia's population literate?

- Yes, certainly. Russia's population is literate. Education is free at all levels and compulsory between the ages of 6 and 17. The educational system includes four-year primary schools and general, technical, or vocational secondary schools. University admittance is determined by competitive examination.

- Can Russia be proud of its cultural life?

- Literature, music, and dance have always occupied the most important places in Russian cultural life. The country's best-known writers are - Aleksandr Pushkin, Nikolay Gogol, Ivan Turgenev, Leo Tolstoy, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Anton Chekhov, Boris Pasternak. They are popular throughout the world. The greatest Russian composers are Aleksandr Borodin, Modest Mussorgsky, Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov, and Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky. Their legacy is evident in more contemporary music, notably that of Sergey Rachmaninoff, Igor Stravinsky, Sergey Prokofiev, and Dmitry Shostakovich.

- What are Russia's most important cities?

- Russia's most important cities are Moscow and St. Petersburg, formerly Leningrad.

- What can you tell us about Moscow?

- Moscow is the capital of Russia. The date of its foundation is the year 1147. Moscow began to rise in the 14th century. Under Ivan III the Great, in the mid- fifteenth century, Moscow became the principal city of the state of Muscovy. Nowadays Moscow is the largest city of Russia. It is a political, administrative, economic, industrial, educational and cultural centre of the country.

- Are there many educational institutions in Moscow?

- Moscow has a large concentration of educational institutions. Its centres of higher education draw students from throughout Russia. Moscow State University is the leading educational institution. The city's many specialized educational institutions include the Moscow Timiryazev Academy of Agriculture and the Moscow Tchaikovsky State Conservatory.

- Where is the growth of Moscow evident?

- It is possible to trace successive epochs of its development by the Boulevard Ring and the Garden Ring - both following the line of former fortifications - the Moscow Little Ring Railway, and the Moscow Ring Road. They facilitate suburban commuter traffic.

- What is located beyond the Garden Ring?

- Beyond the Garden Ring is a middle zone dominated by 18th and 19th-century developments; many factories, railway stations and freight yards are located there. Since 1960 extensive urban renewal has occurred, producing neighbourhoods of high-rise apartment buildings.

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